Kepler is the codename for a GPU microarchitecture developed by Nvidia, first introduced at retail in April 2012, as the successor to the Fermi microarchitecture. Kepler was Nvidia's first microarchitecture to focus on energy efficiency. Most GeForce 600 series, most GeForce 700 series, and some GeForce 800M series GPUs were based on Kepler, all manufactured in 28 nm. Kepler also found use in the GK20A, the GPU component of the Tegra K1 SoC, as well as in the Quadro Kxxx series, the Quadro NVS 510, and Nvidia Tesla computing modules. Kepler was followed by the Maxwell microarchitecture and used alongside Maxwell in the GeForce 700 series and GeForce 800M series.
Kepler Graphics Processors Line-up's
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Next Generation Streaming Multiprocessor (SMX)
The Kepler architecture employs a new Streaming Multiprocessor Architecture called "SMX". SMXs are the reason for Kepler's power efficiency as the whole GPU uses a single unified clock speed.[5] Although SMXs usage of a single unified clock increases power efficiency due to the fact that multiple lower clock Kepler CUDA Cores consume 90% less power than multiple higher clock Fermi CUDA Core, additional processing units are needed to execute a whole warp per cycle. Doubling 16 to 32 per CUDA array solve the warp execution problem, the SMX front-end are also double with warp schedulers, dispatch unit and the register file doubled to 64K entries as to feed the additional execution units. With the risk of inflating die area, SMX PolyMorph Engines are enhanced to 2.0 rather than double alongside the execution units, enabling it to spurr polygon in shorter cycles. There are 192 shaders per SMX.[8] Dedicated FP64 CUDA cores are also used as all Kepler CUDA cores are not FP64 capable to save die space. With the improvement Nvidia made on the SMX, the results include an increase in GPU performance and efficiency. With GK110, the 48KB texture cache are unlocked for compute workloads. In compute workload the texture cache becomes a read-only data cache, specializing in unaligned memory access workloads. Furthermore, error detection capabilities have been added to make it safer for workloads that rely on ECC. The register per thread count is also doubled in GK110 with 255 registers per thread.
Microsoft Direct3D Support
Nvidia Fermi and Kepler GPUs of the GeForce 600 series support the Direct3D 11.0 specification. Nvidia originally stated that the Kepler architecture has full DirectX 11.1 support, which includes the Direct3D 11.1 path. The following "Modern UI" Direct3D 11.1 features, however, are not supported:
- Target-Independent Rasterization (2D rendering only)
- 16xMSAA Rasterization (2D rendering only).
- Orthogonal Line Rendering Mode.
- UAV (Unordered Access View) in non-pixel-shader stages.
According to the definition by Microsoft, Direct3D feature level 11_1 must be complete, otherwise the Direct3D 11.1 path can not be executed.[14] The integrated Direct3D features of the Kepler architecture are the same as those of the GeForce 400 series Fermi architecture.
Hyper-Q
Hyper-Q expands GK110 hardware work queues from 1 to 32. The significance of this being that having a single work queue meant that Fermi could be under occupied at times as there wasn't enough work in that queue to fill every SM. By having 32 work queues, GK110 can in many scenarios, achieve higher utilization by being able to put different task streams on what would otherwise be an idle SMX. The simple nature of Hyper-Q is further reinforced by the fact that it's easily mapped to MPI, a common message passing interface frequently used in HPC. As legacy MPI-based algorithms that were originally designed for multi-CPU systems that became bottlenecked by false dependencies now have a solution. By increasing the number of MPI jobs, it's possible to utilize Hyper-Q on these algorithms to improve the efficiency all without changing the code itself.
Shuffle Instructions
At a low level, GK110 sees an additional instructions and operations to further improve performance. New shuffle instructions allow for threads within a warp to share data without going back to memory, making the process much quicker than the previous load/share/store method. Atomic operations are also overhauled, speeding up the execution speed of atomic operations and adding some FP64 operations that were previously only available for FP32 data.
Dynamic Parallelism
Dynamic Parallelism ability is for kernels to be able to dispatch other kernels. With Fermi, only the CPU could dispatch a kernel, which incurs a certain amount of overhead by having to communicate back to the CPU. By giving kernels the ability to dispatch their own child kernels, GK110 can both save time by not having to go back to the CPU, and in the process free up the CPU to work on other tasks.
Video decompression/compression
NVDEC
NVENC
Main article: Nvidia NVENC
NVENC is Nvidia's power efficient fixed-function encode that is able to take codecs, decode, preprocess, and encode H.264-based content. NVENC specification input formats are limited to H.264 output. But still, NVENC, through its limited format, can support up to 4096x4096 encode.
Like Intel's Quick Sync, NVENC is currently exposed through a proprietary API, though Nvidia does have plans to provide NVENC usage through CUDA.
TXAA Support
Exclusive to Kepler GPUs, TXAA is a new anti-aliasing method from Nvidia that is designed for direct implementation into game engines. TXAA is based on the MSAA technique and custom resolve filters. It is designed to address a key problem in games known as shimmering or temporal aliasing. TXAA resolves that by smoothing out the scene in motion, making sure that any in-game scene is being cleared of any aliasing and shimmering.
GPU Boost
GPU Boost is a new feature which is roughly analogous to turbo boosting of a CPU. The GPU is always guaranteed to run at a minimum clock speed, referred to as the "base clock". This clock speed is set to the level which will ensure that the GPU stays within TDP specifications, even at maximum loads. When loads are lower, however, there is room for the clock speed to be increased without exceeding the TDP. In these scenarios, GPU Boost will gradually increase the clock speed in steps, until the GPU reaches a predefined power target (which is 170 W by default). By taking this approach, the GPU will ramp its clock up or down dynamically, so that it is providing the maximum amount of speed possible while remaining within TDP specifications.
The power target, as well as the size of the clock increase steps that the GPU will take, are both adjustable via third-party utilities and provide a means of overclocking Kepler-based cards.
NVIDIA GPUDirect
NVIDIA GPUDirect is a capability that enables GPUs within a single computer, or GPUs in different servers located across a network, to directly exchange data without needing to go to CPU/system memory. The RDMA feature in GPUDirect allows third party devices such as SSDs, NICs, and IB adapters to directly access memory on multiple GPUs within the same system, significantly decreasing the latency of MPI send and receive messages to/from GPU memory.[16] It also reduces demands on system memory bandwidth and frees the GPU DMA engines for use by other CUDA tasks. Kepler GK110 also supports other GPUDirect features including Peer‐to‐Peer and GPUDirect for Video.
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Features
- PCI Express 3.0 interface
- DisplayPort 1.2
- HDMI 1.4a 4K x 2K video output
- Purevideo VP5 hardware video acceleration (up to 4K x 2K H.264 decode)
- Hardware H.264 encoding acceleration block (NVENC)
- Support for up to 4 independent 2D displays, or 3 stereoscopic/3D displays (NV Surround)
- Next Generation Streaming Multiprocessor (SMX)
- Polymorph-Engine 2.0
- Simplified Instruction Scheduler
- Bindless Textures
- CUDA Compute Capability 3.0 to 3.5
- GPU Boost (Upgraded to 2.0 on GK110)
- TXAA Support
- Manufactured by TSMC on a 28 nm process
- New Shuffle Instructions
- Dynamic Parallelism
- Hyper-Q (Hyper-Q's MPI functionality reserve for Tesla only)
- Grid Management Unit
- NVIDIA GPUDirect (GPU Direct's RDMA functionality reserve for Tesla only)
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